Exploring Ancient Egypt Through the Eyes of Herodotus

An interactive journey into Book 2 of *The History*, where the "Father of History" documents the geography, culture, and rulers of a civilization that fascinated the ancient world.

The Land of the Nile

Herodotus famously called Egypt "the gift of the river." He was captivated by the Nile's mysterious annual flooding, which was the lifeblood of the nation. He dismissed the common Greek theories and proposed his own, showcasing his method of inquiry and rational thought.

Herodotus's Investigation

Herodotus systematically rejected three prevailing Greek explanations for the Nile's summer floods:

  • Etesian Winds: He argued that the winds often didn't blow, yet the Nile still flooded, and other rivers facing these winds didn't behave similarly.
  • Flow from the Ocean: He dismissed this as an unscientific and "marvellous" tale rooted in myth, not observation.
  • Melting Snows: He found this impossible, reasoning that a river flowing from the hottest regions of the world (Libya and Ethiopia) could not be fed by snow.

His Own Theory

Herodotus's own hypothesis, while incorrect, was based on his understanding of meteorology:

During winter, the sun is driven by storms into the "upper parts of Libya" (the south). There, it evaporates vast quantities of water from the Nile's sources, keeping the river low. When summer arrives, the sun returns to its normal path in the north. No longer subjected to this intense evaporation, the Nile's waters are free to swell and flood the lands of Egypt.

A World Reversed

The historian was struck by how many Egyptian customs were the inverse of Greek practices. This "otherness" was a central theme of his account, highlighting the unique character of Egyptian civilization.

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Gender Roles

Women attended markets and engaged in trade, while men stayed home to weave.

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Writing

They wrote from right to left, the opposite of the Greek method.

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Mourning

Priests were shaven-headed, but in mourning, Egyptians let their hair and beards grow long.

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Animals

Animals lived alongside humans and many, like cats and ibises, were held sacred.

Gods & Rituals

Herodotus was convinced that Greek religion was heavily indebted to Egypt. He meticulously documented Egyptian religious practices and drew direct parallels between the two pantheons, believing the names and rituals of the gods were brought to Greece from Egypt.

Egyptian Origins of Greek Gods

Herodotus claimed that "almost all the names of the gods came into Greece from Egypt." He provides a comparative list:

Amun

Zeus

Osiris

Dionysus

Isis

Demeter

Horus

Apollo

Bubastis

Artemis

Seth

Typhon

Sacred Rites and Animals

Religious life was governed by strict rules of purity and complex rituals. The Egyptians' veneration for animals was particularly notable:

  • Cats: Mourned by shaving eyebrows. Exported to Bubastis for embalming.
  • Ibises & Hawks: Killing one, even accidentally, was punishable by death.
  • Apis Bull: A sacred bull believed to be an incarnation of a god, worshipped at Memphis.
  • Crocodiles: Venerated in some regions (like Thebes) but hunted in others (like Elephantine).

A Dynasty of Kings

Herodotus recounts the history of Egypt through the reigns of its monarchs, as told to him by the priests. This history blends myth, folktale, and factual accounts. Explore the timeline below to learn about the key rulers and the stories that defined their legacies.

A Comparison of Reigns

Wonders of a Lost World

The architectural achievements of the Egyptians left Herodotus in awe. He considered their greatest works to surpass even the finest structures of the Greeks, testifying to the immense power and resources of the pharaohs.

The Pyramids

Herodotus attributes the Great Pyramids to the tyrannical reigns of Cheops and Chephren. He reports that the Great Pyramid took 100,000 men, working in three-month shifts, a total of 20 years to complete. An inscription, he was told, recorded the vast sums spent on radishes, onions, and garlic for the laborers.

  • Builder: King Cheops
  • Reign: 50 years
  • Labor Force: 100,000 men
  • Construction Time: 20 years

The Labyrinth

More impressive to Herodotus than even the pyramids, the Labyrinth was a massive complex near Lake Moeris. He claimed it contained twelve roofed courts and three thousand chambers, half above ground and half below. He described it as a bewildering maze of passages from courts to rooms to colonnades that "excelled all other human productions."

  • Courts: 12 roofed courts
  • Chambers: 3,000 total
  • Levels: 1,500 above ground, 1,500 below
  • Herodotus's Verdict: "Surpasses the pyramids."